Matricaria chamomilla L. (syn. M. recutita), commonly known as chamomile, is a medicinal plant from the Asteraceae family with a millennia-old history of therapeutic use. Revered as one of the oldest and most extensively documented medicinal plants globally, it holds a distinguished position in both traditional Persian medicine and contemporary Phyto therapy.
Chamomile is an annual herbaceous plant native to southern and Eastern Europe and naturalized in temperate regions worldwide. In the canon of traditional Iranian medicine, chamomile (Bāboonaj in Persian) has been extensively documented. Classical physicians like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) recognized its complex humoral temperament, describing the flower as possessing a warm and dry nature, with the root being even more potent in these qualities. This historical framework aligns with contemporary understanding, where these “temperaments” correlate with the plant’s potent bioactive secondary metabolites and their pharmacological effects.
Phytochemical Constituents
The therapeutic breadth of chamomile is attributed to its complex and synergistic phytochemical matrix.
Essential Oil (0.4–2.0%)
The essential oil, typically azure-blue due to the presence of chamazulene, remains a hallmark of chamomile. Over 40 constituents have been identified, with principal components including:
- α-Bisabolol and its oxides A & B: Sesquiterpenes with documented anti-inflammatory, anti-irritant, and antimicrobial properties
- Chamazulene: A proazulene formed from matricin during steam distillation, exhibiting significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity
- cis/trans-En-yn-dicycloethers (Spiroethers): Compounds with anti-phlogistic, antibacterial, and antimycotic effects
Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds
Key flavonoids include apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, and their glycosides (particularly apigenin-7-O-glucoside). Apigenin is notably recognized for its ability to bind central benzodiazepine receptors, suggesting a mechanistic basis for its anxiolytic and mild sedative effects.
Recent investigations have identified apigenin glycosides and caffeoylquinic acid derivatives as marker metabolites for chamomile. The plant demonstrates strong α-glucosidase inhibition activity, indicating potential applications in glycaemic control. Furthermore, environmental conditions significantly influence phytochemical composition, with studies revealing distinct metabolomic profiles between European and Jordanian chamomile varieties. European samples yielded compounds including chrysosplenetin and apigenin with demonstrated anticancer activity, while Jordanian varieties exhibited primarily antioxidant properties.
Other Bioactive Constituents
The plant also contains coumarins (umbelliferone, herniarin), mucilage polysaccharides, phenolic acids (caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid), and tannins. Recent analyses of fermented chamomile-containing beverages have quantified hesperidin (124-130 mg L⁻¹), narirutin (66-70 mg L⁻¹), chlorogenic acid (11-16 mg L⁻¹), caffeic acid (5.3-5.5 mg L⁻¹), and ferulic acid (1-1.7 mg L⁻¹) .
Therapeutic Properties
Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Activity
The anti-inflammatory effects are primarily mediated by chamazulene and α-bisabolol, which inhibit lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways, suppressing pro-inflammatory leukotriene and prostaglandin synthesis.
Flavonoids and phenolic acids act as potent free radical scavengers. In silico analyses suggest that chamomile constituents present no toxicity risk regarding mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, or hepatotoxicity, while contributing to antioxidant, gastroprotective, and anti-ulcerative properties. The bio accessibility of chamomile polyphenols following gastrointestinal digestion is notably high, supporting their physiological relevance.
Antimicrobial Activity
Recent research has substantially expanded understanding of chamomile’s antimicrobial mechanisms beyond direct bactericidal effects. A 2024 study investigating anti-quorum sensing activity demonstrated that chamomile extracts influence virulence factors and gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates.
Complementary research has identified chamomile as a promising source of bacterial efflux pump inhibitors. This activity, which can reverse antibiotic resistance phenotypes, represents a novel mechanism whereby chamomile may enhance conventional antibiotic efficacy. The extract demonstrates potential to reduce bacterial virulence through inhibition of efflux systems, positioning it as an adjuvant for antibiotic therapy.
Anxiolytic and Sedative Effects
Apigenin binds to central benzodiazepine receptors, exerting mild anxiolytic and sedative effects without the myorelaxant or amnestic side effects of synthetic benzodiazepines. This mechanism supports efficacy in improving sleep quality and reducing anxiety symptoms.
Wound Healing
The combined anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects create an optimal microenvironment for wound repair. Traditional topical applications are supported by clinical evidence for burns, ulcers, and surgical wounds.
Gastroprotective Effects
Flavonoids and coumarins exert relaxant effects on gastrointestinal smooth muscle. Recent in silico predictions support gastroprotective and anti-ulcerative properties.
Ethnomedicinal Applications
The therapeutic use of chamomile is deeply embedded in medical history. Ancient Egyptian physicians dedicated the plant to the sun god Ra and utilized it for antipyretic properties. In the Canon of Medicine, Avicenna detailed its multifaceted applications for inflammations, skin eruptions, fevers, headaches, and disorders of multiple organ systems. Traditional preparations include chamomile oil (infused in olive oil) for topical application and decoctions/infusions for internal use.
Therapeutic Applications
Sleep Disorders
A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials (10 studies, 772 participants) comprehensively evaluated chamomile’s effects on sleep. Key findings include:
- Significant improvement in sleep quality:
- Reduced night-time awakenings:
- Faster sleep onset:
- No significant effects on sleep duration, sleep efficiency percentage, or daytime functioning measures
Notably, no adverse events were reported in any included study, although passive surveillance methods limit definitive safety conclusions. A pilot randomized controlled trial similarly found moderate effect sizes favouring chamomile for sleep latency and night-time awakenings, with good tolerability.
Other Health functions
Clinical studies indicate that oral chamomile extract may reduce symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder and improve sleep quality in comorbid conditions.
Topical formulations remain effective for inflammatory skin conditions. Clinical support exists for accelerating healing of superficial wounds, minor burns, and nipple fissures.
Chamomile mouthwash demonstrates efficacy in reducing inflammation and promoting epithelialization in oral mucositis secondary to cancer therapy.
Antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory properties provide symptomatic relief in dyspepsia, bloating, and functional gastrointestinal disorders.
Recent findings regarding anti-biofilm and anti-quorum sensing activities suggest potential applications in combating antibiotic-resistant infections. The ability to inhibit bacterial efflux pumps represents a novel mechanism for adjunctive therapy.
Chamomile’s α-glucosidase inhibition activity suggests potential applications in glycaemic control, warranting further investigation.
Conclusion
Matricaria chamomilla stands as a paradigmatic example of a medicinal plant whose traditional uses are increasingly validated by modern scientific inquiry. Its complex phytochemistry, rich in essential oils, flavonoids, and other bioactive compounds, underpins wide-ranging pharmacological effects including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-virulence, antispasmodic, and anxiolytic activities.
Recent advances in analytical chemistry have enabled more precise characterization of its metabolomic profile, while clinical research exemplified by the 2024 sleep meta-analysis provides quantitative evidence for specific therapeutic applications. Emerging mechanisms including quorum sensing inhibition, efflux pump modulation, and anti-biofilm activity open new avenues for addressing antibiotic resistance. From its historical roots in ancient and Persian medicine to current clinical applications in sleep medicine, dermatology, and potentially infectious disease, chamomile remains a valuable and versatile therapeutic agent warranting continued research into its full potential and mechanisms of action.
References
Martins MD, Marques MM, Bussadori SK, Trevizani Martins MA, Santos Pavesi VC, Mesquita-Ferrari RA, et al. Comparative analysis between Chamomilla recutitaand corticosteroids on wound healing. An in vitro study. Phytothe Res 2009;23:274-8.
Amsterdam JD, Shults J, Soeller I, Mao JJ, Rockwell K, Newberg AB. Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) May Have Antidepressant Activity in Anxious Depressed Humans Exploratory Study. Alternative therapies in health and medicine. 2012;18(5):44.3.
Atoum D, Fernandez-Pastor I, Young L, Edrada-Ebel R. Use of Multivariate Analysis to Unravel the Differences between Two Chamomile Varieties and Their Anticancer and Antioxidan Activities. Plants (Basel). 2023;12(12):2299.
Kazemi A, Shojaei-Zarghani S, Eskandarzadeh P, Hashempur MH. Effects of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) on sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Complement Ther Med. 2024;84:103071.
Szemerédi N, et al. European herbs with promising efflux pump inhibitory and anti-quorum sensing activities. J Ethnopharmacol. 2023;312:116484.
Zick SM, Wright BD, Sen A, Arnedt JT. Preliminary examination of the efficacy and safety of a standardized chamomile extract for chronic primary insomnia: a randomized placebo-controlled pilot study. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011;11:78.
Very informative and amazing work. Thanks for sharing.